EFFECT OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF LEARNERS IN ISLAMIC STUDIES
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
The family is the child’s first place of contact with the world. The child as a result, acquires initial education and socialization from parents and other significant persons in the family. Agulana (1999) pointed out that the family lays the psychological, moral, and spiritual foundation in the overall development of the child. Structurally, family/home is either broken or intact. A domestic violence in this context is one that is not structurally intact, as a result of divorce, separation, death of one of the parents and illegitimacy.
According to Frazer (2001), psychological home conditions arise mainly from illegitimacy of children, the label of adopted child, broken homes, divorce and parental deprivation. Such abnormal conditions of the home are likely to have a detrimental effect on students’ academic performance. Life, in a single parent family or domestic violence can be stressful for both the child and the parent. Such families are faced with challenges of inadequate financial resources (Children Defense Fund (1994). Schults (2006), noted that if adolescents from unstable homes are to be compared with those from stable homes, it would be seen that the former have more social, academic and emotional problems. Rochlkepartain (2003) is of the opinion that the family and its structure play a great role in students’ academic performance.
Levin (2001) states that parents are probably the actors with the clearest un-dimensional interest in a high level of their children’s academic performance. To some extent, there is simple evidence to show that marital instability brings about stress, tension, lack of motivation and frustration. Obviously, these manifestations act negatively on a student’s academic performance. Johnson (2005) asserts that children of separated parents/families often fail and are at risk emotionally. However, this may not be completely applicable in all cases of broken homes. Some children irrespective of home background or structure may work hard and become successful in life. Moreover, Ayodele (2006) stated that the environment where a child finds himself/herself goes a long way in determining his learning ability and ultimately his academic performance in school.
Consequently, Islam has set measures ahead of any issue that may affect human life especially human intellect. Islam as well is not left out on matters related to domestic violence. Islam, as the final message from God to humankind, came to light in a brutal and cruel environment. Violence was a common practice in Arabia and around the world at the time of its advent. The weak and needy, orphans and widows, and slaves and servants had no defined rights in such a world. Islam came to establish justice and mercy in the heart of a cruel world and prohibited any oppressive behavior. The Qur’an emphasizes that all people are created equal in worth and value regardless of race, ethnicity, gender or class. It revolutionized everything at the time by critically analyzing and reforming various global and local customs and traditions related to human relations at that time.
Islam recognized all human beings as equal before God. This evidence is seen in Chapter 4, verse 1 of the Qur’an reads,
“O mankind! reverence your Lord, who created you from a single soul, and created, of like nature, its mate, and from them twain scattered (like seeds) countless men and women; reverence Allah, through whom ye demand your mutual (rights), and (reverence) the wombs (that bore you), for God ever watches over you.”
Both men and women are obliged to keep each other on the straight path and prevent each other from going astray:
“The Believers, men and women, are protectors one of another (awliya’): they enjoin what is just, and forbid what is evil: they observe regular prayers, practice regular charity, and obey Allah and His Messenger. On them will Allah pour His mercy: for Allah is Exalted in power, Wise.”
The Qur’an not only deconstructed unjust and misogynistic practices, but offered practical and healthy alternatives for each custom. Furthermore, it provided rights for the needy, orphans, widows and slaves. Consequently, most of the first followers of Islam were among the poor, the slaves and women. Shortly, a justly balanced community evolved, enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong. After the demise of Prophet Muhammad, Muslim Shari’ah law was established to safeguard humanity behaviour in relation each other
According to Imam Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d.111) has stated that “The Shari’ah’s purposes of the creation are five: to preserve their religion, their souls, their mind, their off-springs and their money. So, everything that includes preserving these five principles is considered a maslaha (interest). And everything that results in failure of these principles is a harm that should be fought and tuned to an interest. The prohibition of failing or restraining these five principles has always been included in all religions and Shari’ah, as Shariha comes for the interest of humankind. Hence, among the principles that Islamic law intend to preserve is “Mind” (intellect) it is evident that knowledge acquisition is highly respected in Islam. In other words, any domestic violence that may affect learners’ academic performance required to be prevented, especially in Islamic studies.
According to Tony (2002) “The extent and magnitude of domestic violence cannot be precisely measured because there are many cases whereby victims fail to report thus making this vice an inter-personal and family secret. Violence between spouses usually has far reaching consequences on children. Besides the scenes of violence being traumatic, the children may suffer short- term as well as long-term emotional imbalances, which not only affect their behavior and performance in schools, but also may adversely affect their social and interpersonal relationships. These children may then end up being abusers themselves in what can be seen as continuity hypothesis. Children who witness violence between their parents often develop many of the same behavioural and psychological problems as children who are themselves abused. Thus, it is against this study to examine the effect of domestic violence in academic performance of learners in Islamic studies in saki west local government.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Domestic violence is a problem as in many parts of Africa. There is a deep cultural belief in Nigeria that it is socially acceptable to hit children to discipline them. In the past two decades there has been growing recognition of the prevalence of domestic violence in the society. Moreover, it has become apparent that some individuals are at a greater risk for victimization than others. Domestic violence has adverse effects on individuals, families and society in general. Domestic violence which includes: physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological abuse and abuse to property and pets. Verily, exposure to these forms of violence has considerable potential to be perceived as life threatening by those victimized and can leave them with a sense of vulnerability, helplessness and in extreme cases horror, especially, learners who are on one way or the other experienced it may become imbalance.
Over the years, series of studies have proved that the objective of education in Oyo state has not totally been realized due to one reason or the other. Some traced it to the teachers’ attitude towards teaching, while others traced it to lack of adequate resources in teaching and learning process. In fact, some studies revealed that the failure could be traced to students’ attitude to learning. Nevertheless, they are right; but there is one unnoticed problem that stands as a contributive factor to poor performance of students in Islamic studies is domestic violence. Thus, this study examined the effects of domestic violence on learners’ performance in Islamic studies in Saki West local government. The study, therefore intend to establish how Islamic studies students in junior secondary schools are affected either directly or indirectly by domestic violence and then lead to overall poor academic performance of junior secondary school students in Islamic studies in Saki West local government.
1.3 Research Questions
The study attempted to provide answers to the following research questions:
I. What are the common forms of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government?
II. What are the causes of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government?
III. What are the effects of domestic violence on the junior secondary school students’ academic performance in Islamic studies in Ibadan Saki West Local Government?
1.4 Significance of the Study
The findings of this study is hoped to give secondary school teachers insight on how to identify causes and effect of domestic violence, as well, the way to identify students being affected by domestic violence and get better ways of handling them.
It is the hope of the researcher that the findings of the study will educate students on the implication of domestic violence on their academic performance and ways of solving domestic violence problem.
The finding of the study is expected to acquaint parents and guidance the effect of domestic violence on children academic performance in school. Therefore, know how to avoid it and ways to handle issues that may lead to domestic violence as well treat their children diligently.
It is also hoped that the study will sensitize government, educational administrators and curriculum planners the need to provide measures on eradicating domestic violence in the society and schools.
Finally, the finding of the study is envisaged to contribute to the existing body of moral and humanitarian education as well, would be a reference point for further studies.
1.5 Scope of the study
The study is exclusively focus on effect of domestic violence in academic performance of learners in Islamic studies in saki west local government.
Thus, it will cover only Junior Secondary School students from JSS I - III in some selected secondary schools. The study examines the causes; types and effects influence of domestic violence on the academic performance of junior secondary school students in Islamic studies.
1.6 Operational definition of terms
● Domestic – Home or family
● Violence – Crises or conflict between two people or groups
● Domestic violence – is a fight between members of the same family
● Junior Secondary School Students: they are the students who have finished Primary schools and are in the first segment of secondary education.
●Academic performance-it was the mean score in examinations of a student in the past one year in examination given within the Ibadan n/w local government.
● Islamic Studies: is a subject that speaks on Islam; it is designed for the students particularly Muslims to be offered in schools.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter entails the effects of domestic violence on students in general over time. It shows what various authors have noted or realized from the definition and background of domestic violence to its relations to school drop outs, violence, truancy and concentration which all contribute to academic performance of junior secondary school students.
CONCEPTUAL REVIEW
2.1 Concept of Domestic Violence
The word ‘domestic’ is derived from the Latin word domus meaning a ‘home’. Domestic (Domesticus in Latin) connotes what happens in and around a family dwelling place (Tony, 2002).
Violence is the use of coercive forms of power: the use of force or the threat of its use to compel someone to do something that the person might not otherwise do. It is part of a continuum ranging from legitimate power (a person does something because it is right to do so) through utilitarian power (a person does something because of a reward for doing so) to coercive power. According to Jones (1994) violence is any act that causes the victim to do something they do not want to do, prevent them from doing something they want to do or causes them to be afraid. Hence violence needs not involve physical contact with the victim, but verbal threats and psychological abuse can be equally destructive. Violence is any destructive behavior, which is geared towards hurting another person. Domestic abuse or violence is that abuse (physical/sexual/verbal and emotional) which occurs within the home. In some cases (and frequently in this study) it can be used to refer to spousal abuse, IPV or husband-wife abuse. Spousal violence is the deliberate aggressive behavior against the spouse with the intent of producing harm. Domestic violence is the acts of psychological, physical, property and sexual abuse committed against a woman member of the family unit by a member of that unit. Acts of violence committed by a man against the woman who is the mother of his offspring is also considered as domestic violence even if there is no matrimonial bond or stable ‘de facto’ union between them. It has been argued that spousal violence is most destructive because the intensity of intimacy makes spouses very vulnerable to each other (Brencht et al., 1980). This jeopardizes their safety and wellbeing.
Violence constitutes unjustified and illegal conduct, whoever the victim may be, but violence against women is especially reprehensible. This is because the legal and judicial treatment of such violence has often been given inappropriate media attention and justified by an attitude that is disrespectful and discriminatory towards women both as individuals and as subjects of law. Domestic violence is a form of gender violence, which relates more to issues of power than sexuality. It has been known for some time that rape or sexual assault is not related to sexuality; it is related to dominance and an apparent need to humiliate the person being attacked. Similarly, battering as part of domestic violence is also at its heart; an effort to assert dominance or to re-assert a self-image based on dominance (Rhodes&Levison2003).
2.2.1 Types of Domestic Violence
The following are the forms of domestic violence:
(i) Psychological or emotional abuse - This is any act or mission intended to
degrade or control the actions, behavior, beliefs and decisions of a female/male
member of the family unit by means of intimidation, manipulation, direct or
indirect threats, humiliation, insults, false accusations, or any other action which
impairs her emotional health, her self-determination or her personal development. This also includes criticizing a partner constantly, ridiculing or undermining one’s self-esteem. A partner may also use one’s children as a form of psychological or emotional abuse. This is by making the other partner feel guilty about the children, using the children to give messages or using visitation (if divorced or separated) as a way to harass, deny children basic needs in order to get to a partner. Threats may involve threatening to harm the partner or their children, family or friends, to make reports to authorities that would jeopardize
relationships to children, or reporting a partner to their employer so that she/he
may lose the job.
(ii) Physical Violence – This means any mistreatment committed by act or omission, which willfully puts at risks or impairs the partner’s physical integrity. This may involve hitting, slapping and choking, burning, biting, kicking shoving using a weapon. It is the use of physical force against another person in a way that ends up injuring the person, or puts the person at risk of being injured. Physical abuse ranges from physical restraint to murder. Dutton (1994) in Abdul-Rasheed (2019)
(iii) Sexual violence – This means any act, which violates the sexual freedom of any member of the family unit through the use of force, intimidation, coercion,
blackmail, deception or any other procedure, which prevents or limits free will.
Sexual abuse involves forcing a partner to have sex or engage in specific acts,
grabbing or molesting a partner, criticizing a partner’s sexual performance or
with holding sex. Sexual abuse may also include any unwanted sexual intimacy
forced on one individual by another. It may include oral, anal or vaginal
stimulation or penetration, forced nudity, forced exposure to sexually explicit
material or activity or any other unwanted sexual activity. (Dutton, 1994)
(iv) Child abuse - This is anything which individuals, institutions or processes do or fail to do which directly or indirectly harms children or damages their prospects of safe and healthy development in adulthood (Wambui, 2000). Children are less able to speak for themselves and assert their rights than are adults. Too often they receive substandard services because they lack the means to promote their own welfare. Moreover, children are inexperienced and trusting, so they are easily abused and exploited by adults, Vardin et al. (1979) as quoted by Donna et al. (1982). Child abuse may take the following forms: physical abuse, verbal or emotional abuse, child neglect, sexual abuse FGM and early marriage. Fundamentally, all these forms of child abuse come down to the misuse of adult power over children. The more ‘disempowered’ adults feel, the more they are likely to abuse those weaker than themselves. (Abdul-Rasheed 2019)
Causes of Domestic Violence
The causes of domestic violence are many and varied. A strong predictor of domestic violence in adulthood is domestic violence in the household in which the person was reared. Many authors have also affirmed this. According to the social learning theory of aggression (Brecht et al., 1980) violence can be modeled in intimate relationships from one generation to the next. The parents ‘model’ ways of solving problems through violence for the children and the children simply learn to use violence when they grow up. A child’s exposure to their father’s abuse of their mother is the strongest risk factor for transmitting domestic violence from one generation to the next. This cycle of domestic violence is difficult to break because parents have presented violence as a norm. However, many other batterers come from homes where the father beat the mother, and violence is the way problems are solved. Also, many boys who watch their mothers being beaten do batter their own wives when they grow up. Nor can we say that all men who beat their wives must have learned this behaviour from their fathers (Taylor, 1992).
Another cause of domestic violence is anger which leads to aggression. A person becomes angry when the spouse does or says something unpleasant towards him/her. He/she feels aggressive towards the source of attack and responds with retaliation. This usually produces an escalation of aggression – and violence breeds more violence. Another cause of anger is frustration. According to psychologists, frustration often produces aggression in that the frustrated person responds by lashing physically or verbally at another person or object (Collins, 1988) in Abdul-Rasheed (2019). Whatever the source of frustration, whether family, finance or social matters, there is bound to be aggression, and mostly directed towards the spouse.
According to Abdul-Rasheed (2019) Stress is another common cause of spousal violence. Stress is caused by many factors such as financial and economic problems. In many instances, couples are unable to meet all their financial needs, especially with the rising cost of living and at times they are not able to sit and plan together for the available resources. Fights and quarrels arise from real or imagined misappropriation of the finances by one party. Stress may also arise from financial reversals especially during economic recession and depression. They usually have a negative impact on the socio-economic status of the family who can no longer maintain their place in the social class. This strain generates stress and eventually violence. It is suggested that the poorer one gets, the greater the stress in coping with the environment and such disappointments often precipitate violence (Tolman, 2001).
Buttressing this fact Nazila (2017) observed “Frustrations which lead to stress may also arise from disappointments in the work place. People who work under an intimidating boss, or are unable to achieve their goals may turn to their spouses to release their tensions. This happens when a person cannot retaliate, either because the offender is too powerful or unavailable or both and so the aggression is expressed against a substitute, usually the spouse in what is known as displaced aggression. Tjaden & Thoennes (2000) note that job related problems also bring about fights between spouses. Societal roles are changing in that the wife has ceased to be the stereotype housekeeper and goes into salaried employment. Some husbands are uncomfortable with this arrangement and may try to discourage the wife from working, either because they feel financially unable to support the wife or simply to maintain their image as the provider in the home.
In other cases the working woman may elicit jealous in the husband who suspects that her male colleagues may befriend her. If the wife insists on continuing with work, a stressful relationship may develop, leading to fights. Men sometimes fear and feel insecure when their wives become economically independent. Sex prescribed roles prescribed by many cultures perceives the wife as a “domestic slave in disguise” (Federico, 1983) in Nazila (2017). Besides many cultures and especially those in Africa support and tolerate wife beating. After paying dowry the wife is seen as the property of the man and can be occasionally disciplined by beating, sometimes to assert the man’s position of superiority in the home, and at times beating is taken as a demonstration of love. Male chauvinism expressed through wife beating makes the wife know who in charge is. Justifications for this violence also evolve from gender norms or expectations about the proper roles and responsibilities of women and men. Typically men are given a relatively free reign as long as they provide financially for the family. Women on the other hand are expected to tend to the house, take care of the children and show obedience and respect to their husbands. If a man however, perceives that his wife has somehow failed in her role, has stepped beyond her boundaries or challenged his rights, then he may react violently supposedly ‘to teach her a lesson’ (Yoshihama &Horrocks, 2003). Worldwide studies identify a consistent list of events that are said to trigger violence. These include; not obeying her husband, talking back, not having food ready on time, failing to care adequately for the children or home, questioning him about money or girlfriends, going places without permission, refusing him sex, or expressing suspicions of infidelity. Kornblum (1991) asserts that the age of marriage is another cause of domestic violence. People who marry early may not have developed adequate sex-role performance and so their marriages have a high chance of instability punctuated by physical violence. Barrenness results in blaming each other and often it is the wife who gets the blunt end of the deal. Fights especially in our African culture also arise from the sex of the children, often with a bias towards preference of male children, with couples blaming each other for the sex of their children. Parenting and control of children also causes misunderstanding and fights between spouses. About 20% of men who beat their wives are generally aggressive people who are violent towards others too (Taylor, 1992). But many normal or ordinary men beat their wives as well. These men are not crazy, psychopathic or mentally ill. They are not inclined to get into fights outside the home. Many of them do not even beat their children. Often a woman gets beaten when her husband or boyfriend has had too much to drink. But we cannot say that the alcohol causes the beating, because it has been shown that stopping the drinking will not stop the beating. Many battered women believe that the abuse will stop if the drinking stops (Rhodes & Levison 2003; Wathen & Macmillan, 2003). However, drinking men may batter whether drunk or sober, and many men who don’t drink also batter. Alcohol can be an important part of a battering relationship. The causes for drinking and for beating in one individual may be the same. Drinking often leads to arguments, which may then end violently.
Often the alcohol is used as an excuse for the battering by the man. Battered woman may find it easier to blame the violence on the batterer’s drunkenness. The same discussion applies to the use of drugs that can also lead abusers to be more aggressive (Nazila, 2017). Domestic violence has far-reaching effects to the victims, which are physical, psychological, social and economic in nature. Physical injuries ranging from cuts, bruises, black eyes, broken bones, internal injuries and brain damage from any blow to the head can cause minor brain damage such as loss of memory, difficulties in concentrating, mood changes or can cause loss of sight or hearing. In the worst cases, death may result or the victim may commit suicide. Domestic violence in some cases results in miscarriages when a woman is battered during pregnancy (Rhodes & Levison, 2003). Tied to physical injuries is the victim’s inability to perform their duties especially at the place of work as well as in the performance of their social roles. In the social and economic arena, the battered woman’s work performance suffers as she may be absent a lot and may lose her job. She becomes isolated, as the husband controls whom she sees and where she goes. Some women fear losing their place in the society especially because there is a social stigma attached to divorce. Some battered women have also entered a state of learned helplessness and have accepted beating as a way of life, especially because the husband has paid dowry for her and thus owns her. Some women also argue that a violent husband is better than no husband at all.
They also fear reporting to the police for fear of being ridiculed or turned away by the men they report to, who believe that domestic matters should be sorted out and reconciled at home. Besides, some policemen are reluctant to prosecute (Straus & Gelles, 1990).Women may also fail to report domestic violence against them because they are financially dependent on the men. They fear that if the man is jailed they suffer not only financially but also loneliness. They do not want to be responsible for breaking the marriage and in a way feel that by staying they could help the man change (Storm, 1986).
Psychologically, the love for the husband changes into fear for him, and of what might happen. She may also lose confidence in herself emanating from the husband always telling her that it is her fault he hits her. There are also feelings of helplessness because her husband controls her through his violence. She is also due to suffer inabilities to make decisions on her own in fear that the husband does not approve and punishes her. Because of these effects, a battered wife finds it hard to help herself. For example, she may lay charges and then drop them or leave her husband and then go back to him. This makes people who try to help her feel frustrated and less willing to help again. Many of them are ignorant of the existence of better ways, or of institutions that can offer help. But more often than not women feel isolated and guilty of being in such an abusive relationship and this makes it very difficult to talk about it (Wearing, 1992). There is also the fear that if the woman deserts the home, the husband may beat her more or kill her or even kill himself. Others simply do not have a place to run to while the majority feel obliged to stay and look after the children and the husband, driven by a maternal instinct not to abandon them to external ruin (Larson, 1986). Violence in a marital relationship also erodes the victim’s mental health especially in cases where the victim is affected psychologically. The victim may experience post-traumatic stress disorders. This involves acute anxiety when victims feel overwhelming helplessness or threat to death or injury.
They mentally re-live the traumatic event through flashbacks or ‘flooding’ and try to avoid anything that would remind them of the trauma. They experience difficulties in sleeping and concentrating, and are easily alarmed or startled. When the burden of violence is very great, they even contemplate suicide. The victim may also seek a temporary separation from the abusive spouse. In this case they may seek refuge with relatives or friends. This touches on the children whether they are left behind or flee with the mother because they have to adjust to her temporary absence or a new environment (Easteal, 1994). Divorce is an option considered when the violence lingers on for a long time, or is very severe. The victims make up their minds to live without their spouses. Schaefer and Lamm (1993) argue that divorce involves a lot of physical and emotional difficulties, and stress for both parties. It is extremely difficult to balance social benefits and costs when an abusive relationship has to be terminated. The spouses have to undergo six stages of divorce, i.e.; emotional divorce as problems come up and they separate.
They then face legal divorce as they raise legal grounds for dissolution of the marriage. Following is economic divorce that deals with division of money and property and co-parenting divorce where they settle custody and visitation rights for the children. There is also community divorce, which involves changes in friendships and institutional ties. Finally there’s the psychic divorce as each person tries to regain autonomy and self-esteem. To master these stages is difficult, stressful and sometimes traumatic for the two and the stakeholders.
Kornblum (1991) asserts that divorced people feel angry, humiliated and rejected. A wife who was dependent on the husband may suffer financially as well as experiencing social and psychological problems as she adjusts. According to Giddens (1992) the emotional bond they shared may persist after separation and this separation stress builds up into anxiety, panic and depression. They may also experience problems of single parenting. In some cases, the victim of domestic violence may seek legal assistance and press charges against the abuser. When this happens, long and costly legal tussles follow, which are very difficult to go along with as they involve “washing dirty linen in public”. In many cases, victims of domestic violence especially women, simply opt to live with the violence. One reason for this is a combination of emotional intensity and personal intimacy characteristic of family ties. This normally breeds a strong mixture of love and hate. The strong bond between them typically encourages the victim to feel responsible for the abuser’s violence and this dims chances of escape. According to Jones (1994) the question of leaving an abusive relationship transforms an immense social problem into a personal transaction, and at the same time pins responsibility squarely on the victim.
Dutton (1994) defines sexual abuse as any unwanted sexual intimacy forced on the individual by another. It may include oral anal or vaginal stimulation or penetration, forced nudity, forced exposure to sexual explicit material or activity. Compliance may be obtained through actual or threatened physical force or through some other form of coercion. Mackay (1994) notes that children from homes where domestic violence occurs are physically or sexually abused and / or seriously neglected at a rate 15 times the national average Regier and Cowdry (1995) estimated that 1 in 5 female children and 1 in 10 male children may experience sexual molestation. According to statistics from (2012) governors’ commission, roughly 50% of homicides and 92% of murders – suicides in New Hampshire are domestic violence related.
Islamic Perspective on Children Safety from Domestic Violence
Children are gift from the Allah (God) to parents. As a gift from the Him, parents should be able to take care and raise their children with love and affection. Children themselves are unable to take care of themselves from consequences of their actions. Hence, parents must always help their children in formulating options that fits their mental and physical development. Parents or those who are responsible of the children’s upbringing are perceived to be competent in making ideal atmospheres for the physical, mental, social and spiritual developments of their children.
According to Miftahur (2015) Children have a number of needs to be fulfilled based on their position at the continuum of developmental stages. Understanding the needs of children is, indeed, never an easy job. Children’s needs range from good social learning to harmonious and supportive social relation for the maturation process of their psychosocial aspect. Fulfilling spiritual needs of children is believed to have positive contributions to the development of the children’s coping mechanism to face their social problems including poverty and neglect. Besides that, fulfilling the provision of children’s rights in Islam is not started only when a child is inside her mother’s womb but further. In Islam, a child has rights to have a noble and pious parent. It means that people who plan to have children must ensure that they are at the peak of their physical and psychological condition.
Islamic teachings about the importance of building and maintaining a peaceful social order for best interest of children as part of the ummah (Muslim community) require that children get the appropriate future oriented knowledge and skills. In accordance with this issue, Ali bin Abi Thalib, one of the companions of the prophet, said
“Teach your children things you did not learn when you were their age for they have been created for a time that is different from your time” (Cairo, Al-Azhar University and UNICEF: 2005)
Islam also warns parents about their obligation to ensure the optimum development of their children. Parents should prepare their children to be solution for future problems rather than being part of them. Regarding this issue, the Holy al-Qur’an states clearly, when it said:
“And let those fear (in their behavior toward orphans) who if they left behind them weak offspring would be afraid for them. So let them mind their duty to Allah, and speak justly.” Q.S. an-Nisa’ (4): 9
Nevertheless, abusive treatments toward children can occur if parent understood their obligation without a sound and balanced understanding about the nature of their children’s rights. This unbalanced condition usually is exacerbated by the society’s perception about the problem. Society, constituted generally by adult persons, has typical perception that usually does not represent the promotion of children’s rights. Moreover, it is likely for the society to consider children merely as their assets, even as their properties. In other words, it is evident that domestic violence is totally forbidden in Islam especially towards children.
However, as regards the controversy on Quran 4:34 on the beating of women, due to its use of the word daraba, which is mistranslated as “to beat”, this verse in no way sanctions domestic violence which many use to support their view on domestic violence. The second most important source that exegetes use to interpret the Qur’an is the example of Prophet (peace be upon him), whose life, words and actions are regarded as living commentary on the Qur’an and provide the framework within which tafsīr is to be exercised. This mode is known as tafsīr bil-ma’thūr (interpretations transmitted through Prophetic traditions or hadith). When this verse is measured against the example of the Prophet, who condemned domestic violence in both deed and word, it becomes clear that this verse does not allow domestic violence, but condemns it.
There are a number of authentic ahadith (Prophetic traditions) in which the Prophet prohibited domestic violence. For example, the Prophet said, “Never beat God’s handmaidens (female believers).”8 In reference to men who use violence at home, the
Prophet said, “Could any of you beat his wife as he would beat a slave, and then lie with her in the evening?”9 The Prophet was known to never hit a woman or a child. Aisha is reported to have said, “The Prophet never beat any of his wives or servants; in fact, he did not strike anything with his hand except if he were to struggle in the cause of God.”10
He was a man whom his wife Aisha described as having internalized the teachings of the Qur’an in his character and personality.
If the Prophet had internalized and lived the teachings of the Qur’an11 and had also never raised his hand to strike any woman or child, how could the Qur’an sanction domestic violence? The Prophet was put in several situations in which he could have beaten his wives had he chosen to understand verse 4:34 as allowing a man to beat his wife. When the Prophet had serious marital disputes with his wives, he never resorted to violence under any circumstances. Instead, he gave them the option of leaving him or remaining with him, as explained in chapter 33: 28-29,
“O Prophet say to thy consorts: if it be that ye desire the life of this world and its glitter, then come, I will provide for your enjoyment and set you free in a handsome manner. But if ye seek Allah and His messenger and the hereafter, verily Allah has prepared for the well-doers amongst you a great reward.”
It is seen that prophet has practically showed us that domestic violence has no space to be filled in Islam.
Another aspect that should be noted is that Islam teaches that all people are created equal in worth and value regardless of race, ethnicity, gender or class:
“O mankind! Reverence your guardian-Lord, who created you from a single soul. Created, of like nature, its mate, and from them twain scattered (like seeds) countless men and women—fear God, through whom you demand your mutual (rights), and (reverence) the wombs (that bore you23), for God ever watches over you” (Qur’an 4:1).
Salma & Zainab, (2003) comment on the verse, that it is important to make a distinction here between being identical and being equal. Islam recognizes that men and women have different abilities and strengths that complement each other. They differ physically and emotionally, but their differences do not lead one gender to be superior to the other. While men and women are considered equal in God’s sight, they have different roles to play in their life as they each seek to live according to God’s will. However, there is no higher value placed on one role versus the other, since both men and women must work as partners in order to have healthy families and societies (Salma & Zainab, 2003).
In order to curtail all forms of domestic violence that may have consequence on learners’ academic performance Islamic law, shari’ah addresses the following issues in great detail: family structure, gender roles, inheritance, roles of mahram (husband), marriage and divorce laws, reconciliation and financial matters. The Qur’an and Sunnah emphasize the connection between justice and piety, accountability to God, and the significance of taking preventive measures to avoid injustice and oppression. Additionally, Imam Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d.111) has stated that “The Shari’ah’s purposes of the creation are five and among the principles that Islamic law intend to preserve is “Mind” (intellect). Thus, it is evident that knowledge acquisition is highly respected in Islam. In other words, any domestic violence that may affect learners’ academic performance required to be prevented, especially in Islamic studies.
In conclusion, the Qur'an repeatedly describes the relationship between husband and wife as one of tranquility, affection, and mercy. Further, it enjoins husbands to live with their wives in kindness or leave them amicably as explicitly states in QUR'AN 2:229. Domestic violence is diametrically opposed to each of these Qur'anic views and ideals expressed in the various verses. Because of its internal consistency, the Qur'an could not be exhorting one ideal and enjoining the related conduct in some passages, and its opposite in another one.
Effects of Domestic Violence on Students’ Academic Performance
Series of studies have proved that children are the major casualty of domestic violence. According to community overcoming relationship abuse (CORA 2014), students and team are often hidden victims of domestic violence / abuse. When exposed to a parent who is abusive, students and tens often witness domestic / abuse, get hurt accidentally or become direct victims of abuse. The effects of exposure to domestic violence abuse can be as damaging to children and teens as the damage that an abusive person inflicts on his / her partner. Three to 10 million children witness domestic violence / abuse. The extent of the risk and trauma of witnessing domestic violence / abuse depends on the age of the child and the severity length and frequency of the abuse. Children as young as1 and 2 years and teens exposed to an abusive parent often feel afraid, helpless, guilty, angry, frustrated, isolated and confused.
Rosemary and Mercy (2018) assert that when children experience domestic and family violence, it can affect their emotions. Children often feel fearful stressed, depressed, angry, anxious or ashamed. Emotional security is the foundation of healthy relationships later in life. This security can be damaged it attachment between the mother/carrier and baby is disrupted by domestic violence. They further assert that in adults, they can frame their problems in a funny story; but children in school do not have that luxury. Like adults, their own knowledge often flies out of their grasp when they are scared; faced with frustration. Despair worry, sadness, or shame, kids lose access to their own memory, reasoning, and the capacity to make connections. The mere prospect of being asked to read aloud in class is enough to freeze some kids. Having to take a written test or exam, with its combined requirements for memory, reasoning, handwriting, planning and organization, can lock some kids’ gears. The sight of a math word problem knocks some kids sideways. Scared kids perform poorly and do not learn new information well. Anxiety is the enemy of memory. And, sadly in many of today's classrooms, we see children whose intellectual energies and capacities are drained by negative emotional states. Emotion is the on/off switch for learning.
Furthermore, Shamija and Daniel (2019) confirmed that children may not be able to concentrate at school because they are constantly on the lookout for danger. This can be subconscious. Detentions at school, missed school days and frequent changes of schools, which can emanate from domestic violence, also affect learning and their academic performance. Moreover, children may have low self-esteem, and think negatively about themselves or people around them. For example, they may think ‘everyone hates me’. A range of illnesses may be related to domestic and family violence. Headaches, stomach aches, stress reactions (for example rashes or immune system related illnesses) and sleep disturbances (for example nightmares. insomnia or bed Wetting) are common.
Hamm (2006) observed that physical problems are associated with child physical violence. Violated children may have more difficulty with their performance, self-control, self-image and social relationships. This is because of the emotional trauma they experience which makes them unstable in mind to concentrate and study.
Ugboulu [2010) revealed that psychologically violent youths are poorly socialized and can perform low in their academic work. This opinion also agree with Berta (2007] who confirms that behaviour problems of children that witness psychological violence include being aggressive and passive, refusal to go to school, lying to avoid confrontation, rigid defense, excessive attention seeking, bed wetting and night mares reduced intelligence, competences, dependence and mood giving. In support the above two opinions, Buka, Birdthistle and Earl (2001) posit that psychological problems associated with exposure to violence comprise one of the most direct threats to the developmental task of school adaptation and performance and that deficit in attention regulation, language skills and memory undermine the child's ability to accomplish the central requirements of school performance.
As the incidents of interpersonal violence grow in our society so does the need for investigation on its consequences on learners’ academic performance in Islamic studies.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
The results were presented and discussed based on the research questions set out in the maiden chapter.
4.1 Demographic Information of Respondents
Table 4.1 Demographic Data of Respondents
S/N Variables Labels Frequency Percentage
1 Class JSS 1
JSS 2
JSS 3
Total 46
94
60
200 23
47
30
100
2 Gender Male
Female
Total 59
141
200 29.5
70.5
100
3 Age range 10 – 15
16 and above
Total 95
105
200 47.5
52.5
100
Source: Field Survey;
The table 4.1 indicated 46 (23%) of the respondents were in JSS1, 94 (47%) of the respondents were in JSS2 and 60 (30%) of the respondents were in JSS3. The result implied that students who were in JSS2 have highest population in this study. In terms of gender, 59 (29.5%) of the respondents were males and 141 (70.5%) of the respondents were females. The result implied that female students have highest population in this study. The table further showed that 95 (47.5%) of the respondents were between the age range of 10 – 15 and 105 (52.5%) of the respondents were between the age range of 16 and above.
4.2 Data Presentation and Analysis of the Research Questions
Research Question 1: What are the common forms of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government?
Table 4.2 showing the common forms of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government
SN Items S A A SD
D
Mean
SD
1. You have been hit with weapon by your friend in the past. 85
42.5 18
9.0 32
16.0 65
32.5 2.39 1.32
2. Someone has insult you for ingénue reason 45
22.5 123
61.5 0
0.001 32
16.0 2.10 .92
3. False accusation 40
20.0 43
21.5 0
0.001 117
58.5 2.97 1.26
4. Fought with friend that cheated you before. 18
9.0 54
27.0 11
5.5 117
58.5 3.14 1.09
5. Some parents force their female child to get married while still in secondary school. 36
18.0 36
18.0 61
30.5 67
33.5 6.28 9.94
6. Some people force female child for sexual harassment. 47
23.5 50
25.0 96
48.0 7
3.5 2.32 87
7. You have been slapped by your friend or teacher unlawfully 7
3.5 90
45.0 7
3.5 96
48.0 2.96 1.03
8. You have witnessed disagreement of opinion that led to violence in your environment 27
13.5 52
26.0 36
18.0 85
42.5 2.90 1.10
9. You have been injured by people before 1
0.5 90
45.0 7
3.5 102
51.0 3.05 .99
10. You have been punished by your parent or teacher due to misconduct 25
12.5 69
34.5 20
10.0 86
43.0 3.64 4.03
Standard mean = 2.50; Weighted mean =3.20
Source: Field Survey
Table 4.2 showed the common forms of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government. Item 5, ( =6.28) was ranked highest, followed in succession by Item 10, ( =3.64), Item 4 ( =3.14), Item 9 ( =3.05), Item 3 ( =2.97), Item 7 ( =2.96), Item 8 ( =2.90), Item 1 ( =2.39), Item 6 ( =2.32) and Item 10 ( =2.10) respectively. The table showed the weighted mean of 3.20 which was greater than the standard mean of 2.50. This implied that all the items were common forms of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government and thus those factors were high.
Research Question 2: What are the causes of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government?
Table 4.3 shows the causes of domestic violence in Ibadan North West Local Government
S/N Items S A A S D D Mean
SD
1. Family/Parental separation 72
36.0 11
5.5 32
16.0 85
42.5 2.65 1.34
2. Poverty 74
37.0 101
50.5 25
12.5 0
0.01 1.76 .66
3. Anger and aggression 110
55.0 90
45.0 0
0.00 0
0.02 1.45 .49
4. Frustration 100
50.0 78
39.0 22
11.0 0
0.01 1.80 2.14
5. Broken homes 144
72.0 56
28.0 0
0.00 0
0.01 1.28 .45
6. Public blamer 129
64.5 71
35.5 0
0.00 0
0.01 1.36 .48
7. Barrenness 108
54.0 25
12.5 67
33.5 0
0.01 1.80 .91
8. Child sex preference 130
65.0 43
21.5 27
13.5 0
0.01 1.49 .72
9. Alcohol consumption 139
69.5 61
30.5 0
0.02 0
0.02 1.31 .46
10. Under age marriage 174
87.0 13.0
6.5 0
0.02
13.0
6.5 1.39 1.01
Standard mean = 2.50; Weighted mean =1.63
Source: Field Survey
Table 4.3 showed the causes of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government. Based on descending order of figures, Item 1 was ranked highest with the mean score ( =2.65), followed by Item 4 ( =1.80), Item 7 ( =1.80), Item 2 ( =1.76), Item 8 ( =1.49), Item 3 ( =1.45), Item 10 ( =1.39), Item 6 ( =1.36), Item 9 ( =1.31) Item 5 ( =1.28) respectively. The table showed the weighted mean of 1.63 which was less than the standard mean of 2.50. This implied that factors causing domestic violence among students in Saki West Local Government were insignificant.
Research Question 3: What are the effects of domestic violence on the junior secondary school students’ academic performance in Islamic studies in Saki West Local Government?
Table 4.4 shows the effects of domestic violence on the junior secondary school student’s academic performance in Islamic studies in Saki West Local Government
S/N Items SA A SD D Mean
SD
1. Inadequate concentration in Islamic studies classroom 67
33.5 68
34.0 47
23.5 18
9.0 5.28 9.30
2. Feeling afraid, guilty, angry, frustrated and confused 0
0.00 97
48.5 96
48.0 7
3.5 2.55 .56
3. Anxiety/ 76
38.0 32
16.0 67
33.5 25
12.5 2.21 1.08
4. Poor interpersonal relationship. 0
0.00 97
48.5 24
12.0 79
39.5 2.91 .93
5. Disorderliness without treatment. 65
32.5 0
0.00 36
18.0 99
49.5 2.85 1.33
6. Partial attention or no attention to learning. 0
0.00 54
27.0 72
36.0 74
37.0 6.88 11.72
7. Lower grade in result in Islamic courses. 47
23.5 47
24.5 29
14.5 75
37.5 2.66 1.20
8. Absenteeism 18
9.0 70
35.0 52
26.0 60
30.0 2.77 .981
9.
Lateness to school 47
23.5 18
9.0 83
41.5 52
26.0 2.70 1.09
10. You are absent in class because your parent did not give the money you need. 29
14.5 41
20.5 67
33.5 63
31.5 2.82 1.03
Standard mean = 2.50; Weighted mean =3.36
Source: Field Survey
Table 4.4 showed the effects of domestic violence on the junior secondary school students’ academic performance in Islamic studies Saki West Local Government. Item 6 was ranked highest with the mean score ( =6.88), followed by Item 1 ( =5.28), Item 4 ( =2.91), Item 5 ( =2.85), Item 10 ( =2.82), Item 8 ( =2.77), Item 9 ( =2.70), Item 7 ( =2.66), Item 2 ( =2.55) and Item 3 ( =2.21) respectively. The table showed the weighted mean of 3.36 which was greater than the standard mean of 2.50. This implied that domestic violence have significant effects on the junior secondary school students’ academic performance in Islamic studies Saki West Local Government.
4.3 DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
The result showed that the weighted mean of 3.20 which was greater than the standard mean of 2.50. This implied that all the items are common forms of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government and thus those factors were high.
In discussing the research question one, ‘What are the causes of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government?’ It was agreed that family is the child’s first place of contact with the world, Agulana (1999) pointed out that the family lays the psychological, moral, and spiritual foundation in the overall development of the child. Structurally, family/homes are either broken or intact. According to Frazer (2001), psychological home conditions arise mainly from illegitimacy of children, the label of adopted child, broken homes, divorce and parental deprivation. Such abnormal conditions of the home are likely to have a detrimental effect on students’ academic performance. Life, in a single parent family or domestic violence can be stressful for both the child and the parent. Such families are faced with challenges of inadequate financial resources. Furthermore, the finding showed the causes of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government. Family/ Parental separation was ranked highest by the mean score rating of ( =2.65) in Saki West Local Government. The finding showed the weighted mean of 1.63 which was less than the standard mean of 2.50. This implied that factors causing domestic violence among students in Saki West Local Government were low.
In discussing the research question two, ‘What are the common forms of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government?’ Ganley (1989), states that Domestic violence includes: physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological abuse and abuse to property and pets. According to him, exposure to these forms of violence has considerable potential to be perceived as life threatening by those victimized and can leave them with a sense of vulnerability, helplessness and in extreme cases horror and also from the studies it was found that students accessed were found in the category of the forms of domestic violence mentioned according to Ganley (1989).
In discussing the research question three, ‘What are the effects of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government?’ According to Florida (2001), children may experience a wide range of emotions some of which may be new and therefore doubly distressing. Students are thus insecure and afraid of the future. According to Talera centre (1988) the effects of witnessing violence at home vary tremendously from one child to another. The attributes that give a child the greatest chance of surfing in scathed are average or above average intellectual development with good attention and interpersonal skills. Furthermore, the finding showed the effects of domestic violence in Saki West Local Government. Partial attention or no attention to learning was ranked highest with the mean score ( =6.88). The finding showed the weighted mean of 3.36 which was less than the standard mean of 2.50. This implied that domestic violence have significant effects on the junior secondary school students’ academic performance in Islamic studies Saki West Local Government.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This chapter presented the discussion and implication of findings, conclusion and appropriate recommendation were provided, limitation of the study and suggestions for further research were also exemplified.
5.1 SUMMARY
The study focused on domestic violence and junior secondary schools students’ academic performance in Islamic studies in Saki West local government area, Oyo state. Domestic violence concepts were reviewed comprehensively, both in western and Islamic perspectives; as well, empirical review of the related literatures were done extensively.
However, the study was structured into five chapters, chapter one was the introduction to the study. The background to the study was examined along with the study’s objectives, the statement of the problems, research questions, significant of the study, scope of the study, limitation of the study and definition of terms. Chapter two discussed the review of relevant literature in which works of authors were consulted and cited.
Furthermore, chapter three concentrated mainly on the research method and procedures. The simple descriptive survey research design was used for the study. The findings of the study were analyzed in simple statistics using the frequency count and simple percentage. In chapter four, the data were tabulated and analyzed using the simple percentage, mean and standard deviation method. It was later followed by the discussion the findings which was revealed that common domestic violence like parental separation, poverty, anger, frustration, barrenness, child sex preference, underage marriage were experienced by the students in Saki West local government. The findings revealed that bad parenting, broken homes and lack of improper guidance are the major causes of domestic violence which eventually affects Junior Secondary School students’ academic performance in Islamic Studies.
Conclusively, Chapter five focused its attention on the summary and researcher’s recommendations and conclusion.
5.2 CONCLUSION
From the findings in the previous chapter, the researcher now concluded that domestic violence has negative influence on the Junior Secondary School students’ academic performance in Islamic studies. It was also cleared that each form of domestic violence had a key role to play in the academic performance of students that is, it was the root cause for poor academic performance of the students in Islamic studies in Saki West local government. In other words, domestic violence has a great effect on students’ learning processes, especially, in Islamic studies.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Owing to the findings of this study, it was recommended that:
Government should provide free education at all levels of education.
Recruitment of guidance and counselors and Islamic studies teachers to the Nigeria schools to assist the school principals in solving the student’s psychological and academic problems.
There should be publicity/announcement through radio, television and newspaper to reduce the domestic violence in the society.
Parents should pay close attention to factors that are personal, of children (Students) since they are critical in ensuring children academic performance.
Couples are to manage peaceful and any difficulty they encounter in marriage.
Parents should love their children and try to know their academic, social, emotional and physical needs.
Parents should consider the factors mentioned in this study and ensure that they don’t make affect their wards.
Students should be assisted by the teachers, especially Islamic studies educators, to develop personal factors that can enhance academic performance
School Counselors should be introduced to schools to assist the students in the guidance of their academic performance.
5.4 IMPLICATION OF THE FINDINGS
The findings of the study had shown that the factors considered in this study were true representation of domestic violence in junior secondary school students in Ibadan North West Local Government.
This therefore had implication to all secondary school students, school teachers, parents, the Government, School administrators and society at large to ensure that enabling environment, good parenting, lack of broken homes, proper guidance and sound monitoring were effective elements to be considered in the academic performance of students.
5.5 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
This research work was supposed to be extended to all the junior secondary schools in Saki West Local Government but due to financial problem, time factor and distant locations of the selected schools made the research limit this study to five of the secondary schools in Ibadan North West Local Government.
5.6 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDIES
Although this research focused on domestic violence and junior secondary school students’ academic performance in Islamic studies Ibadan North West local government, Oyo State, a wider scope could be covered by investigating into the effects of domestic violence and junior secondary school students’ academic performance in Islamic studies at state level or even at the national level.
Also, the research work could serve as another pointer into investigating causes and effects of domestic violence on students’ health or even their social interaction in larger society.
REFERENCE
Agulana, G.G. (1999) Family structure and prevalence of behavioural problems among Nigerian adolescents. The Counselor 17 (1), 154 – 161.
A paper presented at the workshop organized by Network for Gender sensitive Educational Management in Africa and the British Consult in Nigeria.
Bielinski, T., & Devidson, M.I. (2001). A sex difference by item.
Difficulty interaction in multiple choices in journal of educational measurement, 38, 51 – 77.
Al-Qurtubi, Muhammed bin Ahmad (1996). Al-Jāmicu li ahkāmi‟l-Qur‟ān. Beirut: Dāru ihyā‟I t-Turathi ‟l-Arabi
Bliss, I. (2004). Social Class differences in conception of the use of Toys. London: Macquibben kee, 45 – 47.
Carl, J.G & Borko, W.K. ( 2008). Effects of attitudinal retraining on strategy - based Children’s Defense Fund (1994). The state of America’s children. Year Book, Washington D.C. 21.
Erickson, E.H. (1965)” Childhood and society”. New York Pengium Eshleman, J.R ( 1981). An introduction to sociology
Massachusetts: All & Bacon. Fausto – sterling, A. (1995). Myths of gender New York: Basic Books.
Frazer, W.J. (2001). Family Structure, Parental Practices and High school completion.
American Sociology Review, (56), 309 – 320. Research 5 (1), 22 – 50.
Hall, G.S (2004). Adolescence. New York: Appleton.
Halmitton, H.J. (1999). Detecting Gender based differential item, functioning on a Constructed Response Science Test. Applied measurement in Education 12 (3). 211 – 235.
Health, S.B. (2000). The Wider Society and Education. Boston Allyn and Bacon line.
Ichado, S.M. (1998). Impact of Broken Homes on Academic Performance of secondary school students in English Language. Journal of Research in Counseling Psychology. 4 (1), 84 – 87.
Levin, J. (2001). For whom the redundant COUNTS: A Quartile Regression Analysis of family influence on scholastic Achievement Empirical Economics, 26 (1), 221 – 246.
Maduewesi & Emeogu, U (1997). Nurturing the Adolescents in Nigeria today; The role of the family, the school and government, the Nigerian teacher to (TNTT).
A journal of teacher Education, 5 (1 & 2), 39 – 42.Nzewuawah, P.N. (1995).
The effects of single – parenthood on the Academic Performance of students. Unpublished M.Ed Project at University of Lagos.
Okoye, N.N. (2003). Are Boys better than Girls in Mathematics and English Language in academic performance? Psychology for everyday living 2, 21 – 27.
Ordedi, D. (2001). The girl: Develoing the potentials of the girl child.
A national challenge the regent Ortese, P.T. (1998). Single parenting in Nigeria: Counseling concerns and implication. The counselor, 1601, 61 – 66.
Orenstein, P. (1995). School Girls: Young Women, Selfsteem and the confidence Gap, New York: Double Day.
Salami, B.O. (2008). Actiology, Treatment and Preention of juvenile delinquency among secondary school Adolescents in Nigeria, Journal of Research in Education., 2 (11) 1 – 8.
Yusuf Ali (1411). The Holy Qur‟ān English Translation of the Meanings and Commentary. Madinah: King Fahd Holy Qur‟ān Printing Complex.
